Remote working can broaden your hiring reach and support retention, but benefits design becomes more complex when employees work across borders. âWork locationâ stops being a single field in your HR system and becomes a live risk variable that affects eligibility, compliance, access to care and privacy. This guide sets out practical international health cover options for remote workers â including local plans, international private medical insurance (IPMI) and travel cover â as well as governance and wellbeing considerations for HR and benefits leaders managing digital nomad employee benefits, telework health cover and multi-country employees.
- Remote work is firmly established: the share of job postings advertising work-from-home more than quadrupled across 20 OECD countries from early 2020 to early 2023, and remained elevated thereafter.[1]
- Mobility changes the âhealth benefitsâ question: your biggest decisions often become where employees work, for how long, and whether they are engaged as employees or contractors â not simply which plan is âbetterâ.
- Coverage gaps are common: travel policies are often designed for shorter trips and emergency treatment, and many domestic plans have limited cover for routine overseas care â which can catch teleworkers out on extended stays.[11][12]
- Compliance sets the baseline: tax, employment, immigration and social security rules can be triggered when people work across borders. You may need a clear remote-work policy, location tracking and escalation routes (even before choosing insurance).[6][7]
- Local plan vs IPMI vs travel cover is usually a portfolio decision: many employers use combinations (for example, local statutory coverage where required + IPMI for portability + travel cover for genuine business trips), subject to eligibility and policy wording.
- Wellbeing programmes sit alongside âremote workforce insuranceâ: isolation, time zone strain and blurred boundaries can increase support needs; employer actions tend to focus on access routes, manager capability and confidentiality safeguards, rather than clinical guidance.[9][10]
- Governance matters as much as product: define eligibility, approval paths and data protections for health information, especially where multiple jurisdictions and cross-border data transfers are involved.[13][14]
Rise of remote work and mobility
Remote working is no longer limited to a small subset of roles. Across many sectors, it has become a normal way to organise work â and job market data suggests demand has remained materially higher than pre-2020 levels.[1]
At the same time, mobility has diversified. Some people work from a single location in their home country; others relocate for months at a time; some rotate between countries; and some combine remote working with frequent business travel. From a benefits perspective, these are very different scenarios â even if the job title is the same.
- Remote worker: works away from a company site; may be home-based or location-flexible.
- Teleworker / telework: a remote working arrangement that may be formalised in policy or contract; sometimes used in cross-border contexts.
- Digital nomad: works remotely while moving between locations (sometimes countries), often with frequent travel.
- Local plan: health insurance (public/statutory and/or private) designed for residents in a specific country, typically priced and administered locally.
- Travel cover / travel medical insurance: cover typically designed for short trips; often focused on emergency treatment and assistance (definitions and limits vary).[12]
- IPMI (international private medical insurance): private medical cover designed for people living and/or working internationally; often multi-country by design, subject to territorial limits and eligibility.
- Compliance: meeting relevant legal/regulatory obligations (employment, tax, social security, immigration, insurance rules) in the jurisdictions involved.
- Duty of care: an employer responsibility to take reasonable steps to protect employee health and safety, including when travelling or working remotely (scope varies).
- EAP (employee assistance programme): employer-sponsored support service (often counselling and practical support), typically accessed via a confidential channel.
- Provider network: a list of hospitals/clinics/physicians with agreed billing arrangements; may affect access, pricing and direct settlement/direct billing.
What this means for HR and benefits teams
Mobility shifts your benefits role from âchoose a planâ to âdesign a systemâ. You may need:
- clear definitions of permitted work locations (and how exceptions are approved),
- reliable tracking of where employees actually work (and for how long),
- coordination between HR, payroll, finance, legal and risk functions,
- and benefits that remain meaningful when care is accessed outside the home country.
Work-from-home job postings increased substantially after 2020 and remained elevated across multiple OECD countries in subsequent years.[1][2]
Challenges in insuring remote employees
Remote workforce insurance (in the broad sense of health cover, assistance and related benefits) can fall short in predictable ways: the plan doesnât match where people live, the policy definitions donât match how people travel, or governance doesnât keep pace with movement. The result can be employee frustration, operational churn and avoidable risk.
1) Coverage gaps when âhomeâ and âworkâ diverge
Many domestic plans are designed around in-country care. Even where emergency overseas cover is included, routine outpatient care abroad may be limited, excluded, or reimbursed at relatively low rates. Government travel guidance often recommends checking whether your regular plan covers emergency and routine care abroad â which suggests this is not always the case.[11]
- Typical symptom: a remote employee pays out of pocket for routine care abroad and finds the reimbursement process unclear or slow.
- Why it happens: the policy was designed for residents, not long-stay teleworkers.
- What it creates: dissatisfaction, perceived inequity and disruption during treatment episodes.
2) Travel cover is often treated as âhealth insuranceâ
Travel insurance and travel medical policies are typically built for trips (not residency) and often focus on emergency treatment and assistance rather than ongoing healthcare. Policy definitions vary, but the CDC and government travel guidance both emphasise reading the policy carefully and understanding what is (and isnât) covered overseas.[11][12]
- Typical symptom: a digital nomad expects cover for routine care, pre-existing conditions or long-stay needs that are not included.
- Why it happens: âtravel medicalâ sounds like health insurance, but the benefits, exclusions and eligibility rules can be very different.
- What it creates: claims delays or disputes, and a false sense of security for extended stays.
3) Compliance and employment status can change the ârightâ solution
When employees work across borders, employer obligations can vary by jurisdiction and by the facts (including employment law, social security, tax and immigration). In some cases, the place where work is performed affects whether local systems apply and how the employer should administer benefits.[7][6]
- Typical symptom: benefits are offered globally, but payroll and statutory enrolment into mandatory schemes do not align with local requirements.
- Why it happens: work-from-anywhere policies move faster than the compliance model.
- What it creates: operational risk, potential back-dated liability, and an inconsistent employee experience.
4) Data privacy and confidentiality become harder with cross-border health data
Health information is generally treated as special category personal data, which usually requires additional safeguards. Cross-border transfers may be restricted and may require specific mechanisms and documentation, depending on the laws that apply to your organisation and the data flows involved.[13][14]
- Typical symptom: claims and health-related absence data is shared too widely, or stored without clear access controls.
- Why it happens: benefits administration spans multiple vendors and regions, but HR teams donât have a complete data map.
- What it creates: privacy risk, reduced employee trust and governance findings.
5) Administrative overhead and âexception managementâ can overwhelm teams
Multi-country employees and digital nomads often generate exceptions: extended stays, country changes, dependants moving separately, and changing eligibility. Without a policy and workflow, HR ends up negotiating on a case-by-case basis â which is time-consuming and difficult to audit.
- Typical symptom: long email threads and inconsistent decisions about who gets what cover.
- Why it happens: no standard decision framework and no clear ownership.
- What it creates: inconsistent benefits, compliance blind spots and perceived unfairness.
Health insurance options (local plans, IPMI, travel cover) for remote staff
Most international health arrangements for remote workers use one (or a combination) of three building blocks: a local plan (including statutory arrangements where applicable), IPMI, and travel cover. The ârightâ mix typically depends on how often people move, where they work, how long they stay, and what your governance model can realistically support.
Local plans
Local plans are designed for residents in a specific country. They may be statutory/public, private, or a combination (depending on how the local system operates). In some jurisdictions, employees (and sometimes employers) may have obligations to participate in local social security or health systems when work is performed there â but the detail varies significantly and should be confirmed with qualified advisers.
- Typical fit: employees who live and work mainly in one country; longer-term relocations; locations where local enrolment is required or expected.
- Common strengths: alignment with local care pathways; local language support; sometimes more straightforward local billing.
- Common limitations: portability can be limited; cover may not travel well; enrolment and payroll dependencies may apply.
International private medical insurance (IPMI)
IPMI is designed for internationally mobile people. It may suit multi-country employees, long-stay remote workers, and staff who relocate or travel frequently. However, eligibility, territorial limits, underwriting approach, exclusions and benefit limits vary by insurer and policy wording, and should be checked carefully against your workforce profile.
- Typical fit: employees living abroad or moving between countries; digital nomads (subject to policy terms); multi-country staff who need a consistent route into care.
- Common strengths: portability; access to a wider provider network; may include evacuation/assistance services depending on plan design.
- Common limitations: may not satisfy local statutory requirements; premiums and terms can change at renewal; administration can be more complex.
Travel health cover
Travel cover is typically designed for trips rather than relocation. It often focuses on emergencies, assistance and travel-related protections, and may not cover routine care or extended stays. Government and public health resources emphasise that cover varies by policy and that travellers should confirm what is included (particularly for medical treatment and medical evacuation).[11][12]
- Typical fit: short business travel; employees temporarily working abroad within clearly defined trip limits.
- Common strengths: relatively straightforward to deploy; can include emergency assistance and evacuation components (policy-dependent).
- Common limitations: exclusions for extended stays; definitions around âtripâ, âresidencyâ and âpre-existing conditionsâ can materially affect claims.
Table: options by employee scenario
This table is a planning aid for HR teams. âTypical fitâ reflects common approaches, but suitability depends on policy wording, worker status and local rules. Cost and portability descriptions are indicative and can vary.
| Employee scenario | Typical fit | Key risks | What to verify | Admin burden | Portability | Cost predictability |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Single-country remote employee Works primarily in one host country for months or more |
Local plan (where required/appropriate) and/or IPMI as a top-up. | Home-country plan may not cover routine care abroad; mismatch between residence status and policy eligibility; potential statutory enrolment issues. | Whether local participation is required; when cover starts; how âresidencyâ is defined; whether IPMI supplements or conflicts with local rules. | Medium (local enrolment + HR system updates); increases if dependants move separately. | Local plans may offer limited cover outside the country; IPMI may provide continuity (subject to territorial limits). | Local contributions may be relatively stable; IPMI premiums can change at renewal. |
| Multi-country employee Regularly works in more than one country (for example, cross-border telework) |
Often a combination: local/statutory alignment + IPMI for continuity of access, with careful tracking. | Social security coordination issues; inconsistent eligibility if âwork locationâ changes; tax presence and reporting complexity. | Which country is treated as the primary work location; whether cross-border telework frameworks apply; documentation needs (for example, certificates) where relevant.[7][8] | High (tracking + approvals + documentation + payroll coordination). | IPMI can be more portable, but statutory obligations often remain linked to where work is performed. | Variable (depends on contributions, renewals and movement patterns). |
| Digital nomad rotating countries Moves frequently, sometimes with short stays |
IPMI is often considered for continuity; travel cover may be used for short trips, subject to policy limits. | Over-reliance on travel cover for extended stays; gaps where a policy defines âtripâ or âresidencyâ differently from the employeeâs reality.[11][12] | IPMI territorial scope; country exclusions; required declarations of residence; stay-length limits; visa insurance requirements (if any). | High (frequent changes, approvals and tracking of days/location). | IPMI is designed for mobility (subject to policy terms); travel policies are usually time-limited. | Less predictable (movement adds cost variability; renewals can change). |
| Frequent business traveller Short trips, typically within defined limits |
Home-country plan + travel cover for emergencies and assistance. | Trips exceed policy limits; routine care not covered; evacuation expectations not aligned with policy wording.[12] | Maximum trip duration; destination coverage; emergency vs routine definitions; evacuation and assistance provisions.[11] | Low to medium (trip tracking and proof of travel may be needed). | Not intended for extended stays; best where travel remains genuinely âtrip-basedâ. | Often more predictable if travel is regular and within policy limits. |
| Contractor vs employee Independent worker engaged by the business |
Often individual local cover or individual IPMI; employer support varies by policy and classification. | Misclassification exposure; inconsistent benefits; the contractor may lack access to statutory systems if not properly engaged. | Worker status tests (jurisdiction-specific); whether benefits can be offered without creating reclassification risk; how stipends are treated for tax/payroll. | Low for the employer if structured correctly; can be high if misclassified or unmanaged exceptions build up. | Depends on the contractorâs own policy; portability varies. | Less predictable for the employer where support is ad hoc; more predictable where a defined, consistent approach is used. |
| Short-term assignment Temporary relocation, often months rather than weeks |
Often local alignment (where needed) + IPMI for continuity; travel cover may not fit if the assignment resembles residency. | Coverage gaps if the assignment extends; delays in local enrolment; uncertainty around âtemporaryâ vs âresidentâ status. | Assignment length thresholds; when local cover must begin; whether IPMI covers the home country on return; family/dependant needs. | Medium (coordination across teams; documentation and onboarding steps). | IPMI may support continuity; local cover can be location-bound. | Mixed (local contributions + private premiums; depends on plan design and renewal terms). |
Decision framework: who moves, where and how often?
Use this as a structured intake before selecting products. The goal is to reduce âexception-by-exceptionâ decisions and create an auditable rationale.
1) WHO is moving? ⢠Employee, contractor, intern, dependant? ⢠Any protected/regulated roles (e.g., safety-critical)? 2) WHERE will they work? ⢠Countries (planned and likely), including transit hubs ⢠Primary location vs secondary locations 3) HOW LONG and HOW OFTEN? ⢠Expected stay length(s) ⢠Rotation frequency ⢠Days-per-country tracking capability 4) WHAT is your compliance posture? ⢠Local employment/social security/tax triggers (confirm with advisers) ⢠Immigration/work authorisation needs (confirm with advisers) 5) WHAT risks are you trying to reduce? ⢠Access-to-care risk, financial exposure, employee experience, governance findings 6) WHAT can your admin model support? ⢠Centralised vs local HR operations ⢠Vendor management, data privacy controls, incident response 7) THEN choose a benefits architecture ⢠Local plan baseline (where required/appropriate) ⢠IPMI for multi-country continuity (where appropriate) ⢠Travel cover for genuine business trips (within policy limits)
If you only implement one thing, implement the intake. It helps you distinguish whether you are solving an access-to-care issue, a compliance baseline issue, an employee experience issue â or all three.
Compliance with employer obligations
Compliance is often the deciding factor for cross-border teleworking health cover. The same benefit can be appropriate in one scenario and problematic in another, depending on where work is performed, worker classification and the structure of your employment model.
Tax, employment, immigration and social security obligations vary by country and by individual circumstances. Cross-border remote working can create multi-jurisdiction complexity. You should consult qualified employment/labour law and tax professionals for your specific workforce and locations.
Key compliance themes HR teams typically map
Eligibility for benefits (and your obligations) often depends on whether someone is an employee or a contractor in the relevant jurisdiction. Classification tests vary and can be highly fact-specific.
In the EU/EEA/Switzerland, coordination rules exist to protect social security rights when working across borders, but the practical application can depend on work patterns and documentation.[7][8]
OECD commentary updates discuss when an employeeâs home could be treated as a place of business for the employer, but assessments remain fact-dependent and should be reviewed with advisers.[6]
âRemoteâ does not necessarily mean âauthorised to workâ in a country. Visa and work authorisation requirements can apply even to online work, depending on local rules.
Health data is generally treated as special category personal data requiring enhanced safeguards, and cross-border transfers may require appropriate mechanisms and governance.[13][14][15]
Remote and travelling employees may need clear escalation routes (medical assistance, security incidents, evacuation coordination) aligned with your internal policies and external providers.
Governance controls that often reduce âremote compliance surprisesâ
- Define permitted work locations: specify where employees can work without special approval (and what triggers escalation).
- Document an approval workflow: who signs off on multi-country work (HR, tax, legal, risk, line manager), and what documentation is required.
- Implement location tracking: at minimum, self-declaration plus a travel calendar; ideally, a consistent system of record with audit trails.
- Standardise benefits eligibility: link benefits to employment status and approved work locations; avoid informal âside dealsâ.
- Map vendor data flows: identify who processes health data, where it is stored and how cross-border transfers are managed.[14]
- Maintain incident playbooks: medical emergency escalation, mental health escalation (non-clinical), security incident response and communications templates.
Practical note: cross-border data transfers (why HR should care)
Where GDPR (or similar regimes) applies, transferring personal data outside the EEA typically requires compliance with the transfer rules (often referred to as Chapter V), which may involve adequacy decisions or safeguards such as Standard Contractual Clauses (SCCs).[14][15] Health information is commonly treated as special category personal data, which can require a separate condition and appropriate safeguards (exact requirements vary by regime).[13]
Supporting mental health and wellbeing
A remote-work health strategy often includes wellbeing programmes â not as a ânice to haveâ, but as part of risk management and employee support. Internationally mobile staff can face additional stressors: time zone strain, isolation, unstable routines and difficulty accessing support in unfamiliar systems.
Public health and labour institutions emphasise employer actions such as managing psychosocial risks, promoting mental health at work, and supporting workers with mental health conditions â typically through policy, job design and support pathways rather than clinical treatment by the employer.[9][10]
What âwellbeing supportâ can look like for remote and mobile teams
- A single place to find support options (EAP, care navigation, urgent contacts).
- Country-aware escalation routes for emergencies and out-of-hours support.
- Training on recognising issues and signposting support (not diagnosing).
- Guidance for supporting people across time zones and cultures.
- Clear expectations on working hours, response times and time-zone overlap.
- Rules that reduce burnout risk (for example, recovery time after travel).
- Limit access to health information to âneed-to-knowâ roles.
- Document how health data is processed and shared.[13]
Benefits/process-focused practices (non-clinical)
- Make support easy to find: avoid burying EAP and care navigation behind multiple portals.
- Use consistent messaging: explain what is confidential, what is not, and how to access urgent help.
- Consider local suitability: language availability, cultural factors, time zones, and whether services support dependants.
- Integrate with incident response: define what happens if an employee becomes unwell abroad (including who coordinates assistance).
- Monitor utilisation carefully: use aggregated trends where possible; avoid collecting unnecessary personal health details.
Wellbeing programmes should be designed with privacy in mind. If you collect or process health information (including EAP referrals, workplace adjustments, or claims-related absence data), make sure you have an appropriate lawful basis and safeguards, and document cross-border transfer mechanisms where relevant.[13][14]
Case studies of remote companies
Below are anonymised, fictionalised composites based on common situations. They illustrate decision logic and governance considerations â not guaranteed outcomes.
Scenario: A fast-growing tech company allows a senior engineer to rotate between several countries over the year.
- Decision logic: define a primary work location; require pre-approval for multi-country rotations; consider IPMI for continuity of access (subject to eligibility and policy wording).
- Governance focus: day tracking and documentation; clarify whether any cross-border social security coordination rules apply to the employeeâs work pattern.[7]
- Trade-off accepted: higher admin burden in exchange for a more consistent employee experience.
Scenario: A services firm hires a remote employee who will live and work in one new country long-term.
- Decision logic: treat the arrangement as in-country employment for benefits purposes; align with local baseline cover; consider supplementary cover (for example, IPMI) only where it does not conflict with local requirements.
- Governance focus: eligibility definitions, onboarding steps and who owns local compliance confirmations.
- Trade-off accepted: less portability if the employee relocates again; simpler administration today.
Scenario: A global sales team travels frequently but rarely stays long in one country.
- Decision logic: maintain home-country core plans; add travel medical/assistance cover for genuine business trips; enforce trip-length limits and pre-trip checklists.[11]
- Governance focus: travel tracking, emergency escalation routes and clarity on what travel cover does not provide (for example, routine care).[12]
- Trade-off accepted: travel cover is not a substitute for long-stay healthcare; separate processes are needed for extended stays.
Scenario: A distributed company experiences growing admin load and inconsistent decisions about remote benefits.
- Decision logic: implement a tiered policy (permitted locations vs approval-required locations); standardise a decision framework; adopt a benefits âarchitectureâ rather than ad hoc reimbursements.
- Governance focus: intake, audit trails and data-flow mapping for benefits vendors.[14]
- Trade-off accepted: some employee flexibility is constrained to protect compliance posture and operational capacity.
Scenario: A company uses many contractors who request âemployee-likeâ benefits.
- Decision logic: avoid benefit structures that could blur classification; where support is offered, use clearly defined, non-discriminatory policies (for example, information resources or optional access routes), confirmed with advisers.
- Governance focus: classification reviews and consistent contracting practices; avoid collecting unnecessary health information.
- Trade-off accepted: benefits parity may not be feasible without changing the engagement model.
In each case, the insurance decision was only part of the solution. Tracking, approvals and role clarity were the enablers.
Checklist for selecting a solution
Use the checklist below to run a benefits committee-ready selection process for international health for remote workers. Adapt it to your organisationâs workforce profile and risk appetite, and document decisions for auditability.
A) Workforce and eligibility
- Confirm who is in scope: employees, dependants, interns, contractors (and whether contractors are excluded by policy).
- Define eligibility rules for remote workforce insurance: permitted locations, approval-required locations and prohibited scenarios.
- Segment by mobility pattern: single-country remote, multi-country employee, digital nomad rotation, frequent traveller, short-term assignment.
B) Location, duration, and tracking
- List the countries where work is expected to occur (including âlikelyâ destinations).
- Set a minimum tracking standard (self-declaration, travel calendar, HR workflow) and define escalation thresholds.
- Assign ownership for location-data accuracy and how exceptions are managed.
C) Compliance intake (high level)
- Confirm with qualified advisers whether cross-border work triggers employment, tax, social security or immigration obligations for the scenarios in scope.[6][7]
- Document assumptions and âstop rulesâ (for example, what changes require re-approval).
- Make sure HR, payroll, finance and legal have a shared definition of âwork locationâ.
D) Benefits architecture
- Decide your baseline: local plan alignment where required/appropriate vs portable cover for multi-country employees.
- Clarify the role of travel cover (short trips vs extended stays) and avoid treating it as a substitute for ongoing healthcare where that is not supported by the policy wording.[11][12]
- Assess IPMI suitability: territorial scope, network access, underwriting approach and how dependants are handled (all policy-dependent).
E) Employee experience and communications
- Create a one-page âhow to use your coverâ guide: emergency contacts, pre-authorisation, direct settlement/direct billing expectations and reimbursement basics.
- Define what happens if an employee seeks care outside the network or outside the territory.
- Prepare manager guidance for sensitive conversations and referral to support services.
F) Data protection and vendor governance
- Map health-related data flows (claims, EAP referrals, workplace adjustments) and apply least-privilege access controls.
- Confirm lawful basis and safeguards for special category/health data processing (where applicable).[13]
- Where cross-border transfers apply, confirm appropriate transfer mechanisms and documentation (where applicable).[14][15]
G) Operational readiness
- Set internal service levels: who answers employee queries, who approves exceptions and who escalates incidents.
- Run a tabletop exercise for a medical incident abroad (communications, documentation, escalation routes).
- Agree renewal governance: how you review aggregated trends, coverage gaps and policy changes year to year (without collecting unnecessary personal health data).
Summarise your approach in five lines: (1) who is eligible, (2) approved work locations, (3) baseline cover type(s), (4) exception and escalation process, (5) privacy safeguards. This usually makes benefits decisions easier to defend and easier to operate.
Get Started
If you are reviewing international health for remote workers â or formalising a remote-work policy that includes multi-country employees and digital nomads â we can help you structure options and the governance around them. Our role as a broker is to support plan design, market navigation and implementation planning in line with your workforce profile and risk appetite (subject to eligibility criteria, policy wording and local rules).
For business support, start here: Businesses & Groups. If you are a broker or partner looking to collaborate on multi-country workforce solutions, see: Brokers & Partners.
Further reading: IPMI Abroad: The Guide to Getting Health Cover Right Before You Move and Global employee health benefits: why international health cover is an investment, not a cost.
Points to verify
- Employee vs contractor classification and benefits eligibility rules (and how classification is assessed in each relevant jurisdiction).
- Countries of work and how âwork locationâ is defined internally (primary vs secondary; temporary vs ongoing; self-declared vs tracked).
- Whether local health cover is mandatory/available and when it starts (including onboarding timelines and payroll dependencies).
- How travel insurance definitions/limitations apply to extended stays, âtripâ definitions, pre-existing conditions and routine care.
- IPMI eligibility, underwriting approach, and territorial limits (including any country exclusions and residency definitions).
- Network/direct billing availability by country and provider, and what happens out of network (reimbursement mechanics, documentation requirements).
- Data protection constraints for health data (cross-border transfers, access controls, retention, vendor contracts, employee notices).
- Employer duty-of-care processes, incident response and assistance services (who coordinates, 24/7 contacts, escalation thresholds).
- Tax/social security/employment law triggers (high level): potential payroll, reporting and corporate presence implications of cross-border remote work â confirm with qualified labour law/tax advisers and relevant local experts.
Resources / Sources
- [1] Indeed Hiring Lab (IndeedâOECD Project on Remote Work) â âThe share of job postings advertising WFH more than quadrupledâŚâ https://www.hiringlab.org/remote-work/
- [2] OECD â The surge of teleworking: a new tool for local development? (report PDF) https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/09/the-surge-of-teleworking-a-new-tool-for-local-development_6b88f7da/5eb3b9f2-en.pdf
- [3] MBO Partners â Digital Nomads (State of Independence â digital nomad estimates) https://www.mbopartners.com/state-of-independence/digital-nomads/
- [4] Yang (2024), Sustainability (MDPI) â cites MBO Partners 2024 State of Independence digital nomad estimate (18.1m in 2024) https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/1/130
- [5] Lockton â Cross-border telecommuting and employee benefits (high-level employer considerations) https://global.lockton.com/us/en/news-insights/cross-border-telecommuting-and-employee-benefits-what-employers-need-to-know
- [6] OECD â The 2025 Update to the OECD Model Tax Convention (includes commentary updates relevant to home offices and permanent establishment) https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2025/11/the-2025-update-to-the-oecd-model-tax-convention_c7031e1b/5798080f-en.pdf
- [7] European Commission â EU social security coordination overview https://employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies-and-activities/moving-working-europe/eu-social-security-coordination_en
- [8] European Labour Authority / EURES â Cross-border telework and social security (overview article) https://eures.europa.eu/whats-latest-cross-border-telework-and-social-security-2023-11-13_en
- [9] World Health Organization â Mental health at work: policy brief https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240057944
- [10] International Labour Organization â Mental health at work (WHO/ILO joint policy brief page) https://www.ilo.org/publications/mental-health-work
- [11] U.S. Department of State â Travel Insurance guidance https://travel.state.gov/en/international-travel/planning/guidance/insurance.html
- [12] CDC â Yellow Book: Travel insurance / travel medical insurance overview https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/health-care-abroad/travel-insurance.html
- [13] UK Information Commissionerâs Office (ICO) â Special category data (includes health data) https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/uk-gdpr-guidance-and-resources/lawful-basis/a-guide-to-lawful-basis/special-category-data/
- [14] European Data Protection Board (EDPB) â International data transfers (SME guide) https://www.edpb.europa.eu/sme-data-protection-guide/international-data-transfers_en
- [15] European Commission â Standard Contractual Clauses (SCCs) for international data transfers https://commission.europa.eu/law/law-topic/data-protection/international-dimension-data-protection/standard-contractual-clauses-scc_en
